and security of individuals； were； in this manner； established in
cities at a time when the occupiers of land in the country were
exposed to every sort of violence。 But men in this defenceless
state naturally content themselves with their necessary
subsistence； because to acquire more might only tempt the
injustice of their oppressors。 On the contrary； when they are
secure of enjoying the fruits of their industry； they naturally
exert it to better their condition； and to acquire not only the
necessaries； but the conveniences and elegancies of life。 That
industry； therefore； which aims at something more than necessary
subsistence； was established in cities long before it was
commonly practised by the occupiers of land in the country。 If in
the hands of a poor cultivator； oppressed with the servitude of
villanage； some little stock should accumulate； he would
naturally conceal it with great care from his master； to whom it
would otherwise have belonged； and take the first opportunity of
running away to a town。 The law was at that time so indulgent to
the inhabitants of towns； and so desirous of diminishing the
authority of the lords over those of the country； that if he
could conceal himself there from the pursuit of his lord for a
year； he was free for ever。 Whatever stock； therefore；
accumulated in the hands of the industrious part of the
inhabitants of the country naturally took refuge in cities as the
only sanctuaries in which it could be secure to the person that
acquired it。
The inhabitants of a city； it is true； must always
ultimately derive their subsistence； and the whole materials and
means of their industry； from the country。 But those of a city；
situated near either the sea coast or the banks of a navigable
river； are not necessarily confined to derive them from the
country in their neighbourhood。 They have a much wider range； and
may draw them from the most remote corners of the world； either
in exchange for the manufactured produce of their own industry；
or by performing the office of carriers between distant countries
and exchanging the produce of one for that of another。 A city
might in this manner grow up to great wealth and splendour； while
not only the country in its neighbourhood； but all those to which
it traded； were in poverty and wretchedness。 Each of those
countries； perhaps； taken singly； could afford it but a small
part either of its subsistence or of its employment； but all of
them taken together could afford it both a great subsistence and
a great employment。 There were； however； within the narrow circle
of the commerce of those times； some countries that were opulent
and industrious。 Such was the Greek empire as long as it
subsisted； and that of the Saracens during the reigns of the
Abassides。 Such too was Egypt till it was conquered by the Turks；
some part of the coast of Barbary； and all those provinces of
Spain which were under the government of the Moors。
The cities of Italy seem to have been the first in Europe
which were raised by commerce to any considerable degree of
opulence。 Italy lay in the centre of what was at that time the
improved and civilised part of the world。 The Crusades too；
though by the great waste of stock and destruction of inhabitants
which they occasioned they must necessarily have retarded the
progress of the greater part of Europe； were extremely favourable
to that of some Italian cities。 The great armies which marched
from all parts to the conquest of the Holy Land gave
extraordinary encouragement to the shipping of Venice； Genoa； and
Pisa； sometimes in transporting them thither； and always in
supplying them with provisions。 They were the commissaries； if
one may say so； of those armies； and the most destructive frenzy
that ever befell the European nations was a source of opulence to
those republics。
The inhabitants of trading cities； by importing the improved
manufactures and expensive luxuries of richer countries； afforded
some food to the vanity of the great proprietors； who eagerly
purchased them with great quantities of the rude produce of their
own lands。 The commerce of a great part of Europe in those times；
accordingly； consisted chiefly in the exchange of their own rude
for the； manufactured produce of more civilised nations。 Thus the
wool of England used to be exchanged for the wines of France and
the fine cloths of Flanders； in the same manner as the corn in
Poland is at this day exchanged for the wines and brandies of
France and for the silks and velvets of France and Italy。
A taste for the finer and more improved manufactures was in
this manner introduced by foreign commerce into countries where
no such works were carried on。 But when this taste became so
general as to occasion a considerable demand； the merchants； in
order to save the expense of carriage； naturally endeavoured to
establish some manufactures of the same kind in their own
country。 Hence the origin of the first manufactures for distant
sale that seem to have been established in the western provinces
of Europe after the fall of the Roman empire。 No large country；
it must be observed； ever did or could subsist without some sort
of manufactures being carried on in it； and when it is said of
any such country that it has no manufactures； it must always be
understood of the finer and more improved or of such as are fit
for distant sale。 In every large country both the clothing and
household furniture of the far greater part of the people are the
produce of their own industry。 This is even more universally the
case in those poor countries which are commonly said to have no
manufactures than in those rich ones that are said to abound in
them。 In the latter； you will generally find； both in the clothes
and household furniture of the lowest rank of people； a much
greater proportion of foreign productions than in the former。
Those manufactures which are fit for distant sale seem to
have been introduced into different countries in two different
ways。
Sometimes they have been introduced； in the manner above
mentioned； by the violent operation； if one may say so； of the
stocks of particular merchants and undertakers； who established
them in imitation of some foreign manufactures of the same kind。
Such manufactures； therefore； are the offspring of foreign
commerce； and such seem to have been the ancient manufactures of
silks； velvets； and brocades； which flourished in Lucca during
the thirteenth century。 They were banished from thence by the
tyranny of one of Machiavel's heroes； Castruccio Castracani。 In
1310； nine hundred families were driven out of Lucca； of whom
thirty…one retired to Venice and offered to introduce there the
silk manufacture。 Their offer was accepted； many privileges were
conferred upon them； and they began the manufacture with three
hundred workmen。 Such； too； seem to have been the manufactures of
fine cloths that anciently flourished in Flanders； and which were
introduced into England in the beginning of the reign of
Elizabeth； and such are the present silk manufactures of Lyons
and Spitalfields。 Manufactures introduced in this manner are
generally employed upon foreign materials； being imitations of
foreign manufactures。 When the Venetian manufacture was first
established； the materials were all brought from Sicily and the
Levant。 The more ancient manufacture of Lucca was likewise
carried on with foreign materials。 The cultivation of mulberry
trees and the breeding of silk…worms seem not to have been common
in the northern parts of Italy before the sixteenth century。
Those arts were not introduced into France till the reign of
Charles IX。 The manufactures of Flanders were carried on chiefly
with Spanish and English wool。 Spanish wool was the material； not
of the first woollen manufacture of England； but of the first
that was fit for distant sale。 More than one half the materials
of the Lyons manufacture is at this day； foreign silk； when it
was first established； the whole or very nearly the whole was so。
No part of the materials of the Spitalfields manufacture is ever
likely be the produce of England。 The seat of such manufactures；
as they are generally introduced by the scheme and project of a
few individuals； is sometimes established in a maritime city； and
sometimes in an inland town； according as their interest；
judgment； or caprice happen to determine。
At other times； manufactures for distant sale group up
naturally； and as it were of their own accord； by the gradual
refinement of those household and coarser manufactures which must
at all times be carried on even in the poorest and rudest
countries。 Such manufactures are generally employed upon the
materials which the country produces； and they seem frequently to
have been first refined and improved in such inland countries as
were； not indeed at a very great； but at a considerable distance
from the sea coast； and sometimes even from all water carriage。
An inland country； naturally fertile and easily cultivated；
produce