payment is made by a separate household； common property is of
course superseded by private property and this enactment is
rightly considered by Russian publicists as prejudicial to the
further maintenance of agrarian communism。 *
The commune exercises its proprietary rights in different
ways。 It keeps the waste…land and forests undivided； and makes
periodical allotments of arable and meadow land。 it was most
prejudicial to the welfare of the peasants that the obligatory
expropriation of 1861 did not extend to a part at least of the
waste…land of the manor； held previously to that date in common
by the manorial lord and his serfs。 We must acknowledge that in
this respect the government of the old French monarchy； that of
Louis XIII and of Louis XIV； showed a far greater knowledge of
the economic wants of the agricultural classes。 The so…called
〃triages〃 secured to the peasants the right of exclusive
enjoyment to at least a third of the manorial wastes and woods。
Nothing which corresponds to those triages has been established
in Russia。 The result of this can be seen in the need which the
peasant is under of diminishing year by year the number of his
cattle； a condition of things which has already re…acted on the
state of agriculture。 In those cases where the village has had no
access to the waste land； it has been obliged to carve out of its
arable ground a special field to serve as a common pasture。 But
this can only be done where the allotments made out of the
manorial land are of large extent。 In the greater number of
villages they have not amounted to more than three dessiatines a
head； and the commoners have been forced to content themselves
either with sending their cattle on to the 〃Lammas〃 lands； that
is； the arable land after harvest； or with renting some pasture
ground from a neighbouring squire。
As for the forests； allotments out of。 them were rarely made；
at least in our Southern provinces where woods are scarce； and
the peasant is quite dependent for his fuel on the squire； who
takes advantage of this fact； and secures the regular performance
of agricultural labour on his own domains in return for
permission to use the dead wood which would otherwise lie unused。
In the northern provinces allotments were frequently made of
forests； and were sometimes treated as 〃assart lands。〃 I make use
of a term which is probably quite familiar to you； as it is
frequently to be met with in English documents even of the first
part of the present century。 But for those who are not aware of
its meaning I will add the following explanation。 When population
became dense； the village allowed new homesteads to be
established in the middle of the forest the trees were burned
down； the roots seldom being removed； and the plough began to
work in a region which had hitherto been accessible only to the
axe。 The area thus cleared for a time paid nothing to the State；
but after a few years； three as a rule； it was annexed to the
number of common lands which were burdened by personal taxes。 The
owners of these cleared lands received no allotments out of the
common fields； but they regularly paid to the Government as much
as the commoners of the same village。
We must now turn our attention to the way in which the arable
land and the meadows are used。 Equality being the chief aim of
the members of the village community； its arable fields are as a
rule very numerous。 The commoners take into account both the
differences in the fertility of the soil and the comparative
advantages of its situation。 Land which is either mountainous or
distant from the village is not likely to produce the same
revenue； or to be so easily cultivated as an equal area to it；
the black soil is far more fruitful than the sandy or the clayey
soil。 The community； therefore； has a great number of 〃shots〃 or
〃furlongs；〃 * and in each of these shots every householder
receives a number of strips equal to the number of the taxed
persons in his household。 You can easily imagine how scattered
and intermixed are the possessions of each homestead。 In cases
where there is no great difference in the fertility of the soil；
and the shots are consequently not very numerous； the community
sometimes adopts a different method。 The whole number of
commoners is divided into 〃tythings；〃 or decenas； and the fields
are divided into as many parts as there are tythings。 Each
tything； or decena； then makes the division for itself。 Lots are
drawn to decide the order in which the strips must be distributed
among the tythings and subdivided among the persons composing
them。* Owing to the almost universal preva1ence of the
three…field system； the number of shots never falls below three。
The re…allotment of shares is of two kinds； partial and
general。 The first supposes the increase or diminution of the
number of strips assigned to a household； consequent on an
augmentation or decrease of the number of persons composing it。
The second is equivalent to a complete change in the distribution
of。 arable land among the commoners。 It takes place at fixed
periods； the shortest of which is three years； that being the
time needed for a complete rotation of crops under the existing
three fields' system； and the longest nineteen or more years
the number of years that separate the old census of a population
from a new one。 The number of shares allotted to each household
either corresponds to the number of male persons for whom the
household pays the personal tax； or to that of the souls actually
living。 Instances occur in which the villagers assign half shares
to the women； or reserve certain shares unoccupied for the
generation to come。 As for the meadows； they are frequently mown
in common； the hay being divided in equal parts among all the
members of the commune。 Very often； too； a yearly division takes
place before harvest； account is taken of the greater or smaller
distance of each meadow from the village； and of the quality of
its grass； and then each commoner receives a strip in all and
every one of the meadows。 But I need not insist on the various
aspects under which the system of re…allotments may present
itself。 It is not my purpose to give you a complete description
of the various forms which the village community may take； but a
general picture of all its characteristic features。
Amongst these I must place the control exercised by the
village authorities over the performance at the proper time of
each part of agricultural labour。 The strips of the several
households being scattered over the whole village area； and
intermixed with those of their neighbours； the same system of
agriculture must of necessity be followed by all。 The system in
use； as I have already told you； is that of the three fields； the
winter； the summer； and the fallow； the fields becoming common
pasture after the gathering in of the harvest。 All agricultural
labour must therefore begin and end at fixed periods； and the
different households which constitute the village must do their
ploughing； sowing； harrowing； mowing and reaping； precisely at
the same time。 The authorities of the village are empowered to
insist upon this； the 〃Flurzwang；〃 to use a well known German
expression； is a necessary condition of this kind of agrarian
communism； which is embodied in the system of the mir。
The performance at its proper time of each part of
agricultural labour could not be attained if the commoners did
not help one another in its accomplishment。 This is the real
origin of the obligation which compels every peasant to help his
neighbours in mowing and reaping。 This sort of communal help；
regularly performed at harvest time； is known in Russia under the
name of 〃village assistance。〃 It was under like conditions that
the medieval lovebones； or love boons （angariae autumni）； took
their rise in England。
The feeling of mutual dependence； which has its origin in the
common ownership and use of land； is the source from which
springs another curious institution。 Certain agricultural lands
remain undivided and are cultivated by the combined work of the
whole village； their yearly produce being regularly brought to
the common store and equally distributed among all in case of
dearth。
In Russian villages there are no special 〃poor〃 or 〃school
lands〃 （Armen…und Schulguter）； similar to those of Switzerland or
Germany； although the question has been recently raised as to the
desirability of assigning certain shares of the common lands to
the schoolmaster； he being authorised to cultivate them with the
help of his pupils。 This plan for turning the schoolmaster into
an agricultural labourer belongs to the number of those measures；
by which the reactionary party hope to prevent the badly paid
village schoolmasters from becoming what they call 〃revolutionary
dreamers。〃 I am happy to say that it has not yet met with the
support of the Government。
I now come to the capital question of the advantages and
disadvantages； which the system of village communities presents；
and which will of course exercise a decisive influence as to its
future。 There is no question so much discussed； and I may say； so