3。 I am outside of cause； since I feel myself the cause of every phenomenon of my life。
Reason gives expression to the laws of necessity。 Consciousness gives expression to the reality of free will。
Freedom unlimited by anything is the essence of life in man’s consciousness。 Necessity without content is man’s reason with its three forms of thought。
Free will is what is examined： Necessity is what examines。 Free will is content： Necessity is form。
It is only by the analysis of the two sources of knowledge； standing to one another in the relation of form and content； that the mutually exclusive； and separately inconceivable ideas of free will and necessity are formed。
Only by their synthesis is a clear conception of the life of man gained。
Outside these two ideas—in their synthesis mutually definitive as form and content—no conception of life is possible。
All that we know of men’s life is only a certain relation of free will to necessity； that is； of consciousness to the laws of reason。
All that we know of the external world of nature is only a certain relation of the forces of nature to necessity； or of the essence of life to the laws of reason。
The forces of the life of nature lie outside us； and not subject to our consciousness； and we call these forces gravity； inertia； electricity； vital force； and so on。 But the force of the life of man is the subject of our consciousness； and we call it free will。
But just as the force of gravitation—in itself incomprehensible； though felt by every man—is only so far understood by us as we know the laws of necessity to which it is subject （from the first knowledge that all bodies are heavy down to Newton’s law）； so too the force of free will； unthinkable in itself； but recognised by the consciousness of every man； is only so far understood as we know the laws of necessity to which it is subject （from the fact that every man dies up to the knowledge of the most complex economic or historic laws）。
All knowledge is simply bringing the essence of life under the laws of reason。
Man’s free will is distinguished from every other force by the fact that it is the subject of man’s consciousness。 But in the eyes of reason it is not distinguished from any other force。
The forces of gravitation； of electricity； or of chemical affinity； are only distinguished from one another by being differently defined by reason。 In the same way the force of man’s free will is only distinguished by reason from the other forces of nature by the definition given it by reason。 Free will apart from necessity； that is； apart from the laws of reason defining it； is in no way different from gravitation； or heat； or the force of vegetation； for reason； it is only a momentary； indefinite sensation of life。
And as the undefined essence of the force moving the heavenly bodies； the undefined essence of the force of heat； of electricity； or of chemical affinity； or of vital force； forms the subject of astronomy； physics； chemistry； botany； zoology； and so on； so the essence of the force of free will forms the subject matter of history。 But even as the subject of every science is the manifestation of that unknown essence of life； yet that essence itself can only be the subject of metaphysics； so too the manifestation of the force of free will in space； and time； and dependence on cause； forms the subject of history； but free will itself is the subject of metaphysics。
In the experimental sciences； what is known to us we call the laws of necessity； what is unknown to us we call vital force。 Vital force is simply an expression for what remains unexplained by what we know of the essence of life。 So in history what is known to us we call the laws of necessity； what is unknown； we call free will。 Free will is for history simply an expression for what remains unexplained by the laws of men’s life that we know。
Chapter 11
HISTORY examines the manifestations of man’s free will in connection with the external world in time and in dependence on cause； that is； defines that freedom by the laws of reason； and so history is only a science in so far as that freedom is defined by those laws。
To history the recognition of the free wills of men as forces able to influence historical events； that is； not subject to laws； is the same as would be to astronomy the recognition of free will in the movements of the heavenly bodies。
This recognition destroys the possibility of the existence of laws； that is； of any science whatever。 If there is so much as one body moving at its free will； the laws of Kepler and of Newton are annulled； and every conception of the movement of the heavenly bodies is destroyed。 If there is a single human action due to free will； no historical law exists； and no conception of historical events can be formed。
For history there exist lines of movement of human wills； one extremity of which vanishes in the unknowable； and at the other extremity of which in space； in time； and in dependence on cause； there moves men’s consciousness of free will in the present。
The more this curve of movement is analysed before our eyes； the clearer are the laws of its movement。 To discover and define those laws is the problem of history。
From the point of view from which the science of history now approaches its subject； by the method it now follows； seeking the causes of phenomena in the free will of men； the expression of laws by science is impossible； since however we limit the free will of men； so long as we recognise it as a force not subject to law； the existence of law becomes impossible。
Only limiting this element of free will to infinity； that is； regarding it as an infinitesimal minimum； we are convinced of the complete unattainability of causes； and then； instead of seeking causes； history sees before itself the task of seeking laws。
The seeking of those laws has been begun long ago； and the new lines of thought which history must adopt are being worked out simultaneously with the self…destruction towards which the old…fashioned history is going； forever dissecting and dissecting the causes of phenomena。
All human sciences have followed the same course。 Reaching infinitesimals； mathematics； the most exact of the sciences； leaves the process of analysis and enters on a new process of approximating to summing up the unknown infinitesimals。 Forsaking the conception of cause； mathematics seeks law； that is； properties common to all unknown； infinitesimal quantities。
The other sciences； too； have followed the same course； though under another form。 When Newton formulated the law of gravity； he did not say that the sun or the earth has the property of attraction。 He said that all bodies—from the greatest to the smallest—have the property of attracting one another； that is； leaving on one side the question of the cause of the movements of bodies； he expressed the property common to all bodies； from the infinitely great to the infinitely small。 The natural sciences do the same thing； leaving on one side the question of cause； they seek for laws。 History； too； is entered on the same course。 And if the subject of history is to be the study of the movements of peoples and of humanity； and not episodes from the lives of individual men； it too is bound to lay aside the idea of cause； and to seek the laws common to all the equal and inseparably interconnected； infinitesimal elements of free will。
Chapter 12
EVER SINCE the law of Copernicus was discovered and proved； the mere recognition that not the sun； but the earth moves； has destroyed the whole cosmography of the ancients。 By disproving the law； it might have been possible to retain the old conception of the movements of the heavenly bodies； but without disproving it； it would seem to be impossible to continue studying the Ptolemaic worlds。 But as a fact even after the discovery of the law of Copernicus； the Ptolemaic worlds long continued to be a subject of study。
Ever since the first person said and proved that the number of births or crimes is subject to mathematical laws； that certain geographical and politico…economical laws determine this or that form of government； that certain relations of the population to the soil lead to migrations of peoples—from that moment the foundations on which history was built were destroyed in their essence。
By disproving those new laws； the old view of history might have been retained。 But without disproving them； it would seem impossible to continue studying historical events； merely as the arbitrary product of the free will of individual men。 For if a certain type of government is established； or a certain movement of peoples takes place in consequence of certain geographical； ethnographical； or economic conditions； the free will of those persons who are described to us as setting up that type of government or leading that movement cannot be regarded as the cause。
And yet history goes on being studied as of old； side by side with laws of statistics； of geography； of political economy； of comparative philology and geology； that flatly contradict its assumptions。
The struggle between the new views and the old was long and stubborn in physical philosophy。 Theology stood on guard over the old view； and accused the new