beacon lights of history-iii-2- 第59部分

believe　that　Bacon　was　interested；　not　merely　in　the　world　of

matter；　but　in　the　world　of　mind；　that　he　sought　to　establish

principles　from　which　sound　deductions　might　be　made；　as　well　as　to

establish　reliable　inductions。　　Lord　Campbell　thinks　that　a　perfect

system　of　ethics　could　be　made　out　of　his　writings；　and　that　his

method　is　equally　well　adapted　to　examine　and　classify　the

phenomena　of　the　mind。　　He　separated　the　legitimate　paths　of　human

inquiry；　giving　his　attention　to　poetry　and　politics　and

metaphysics；　as　well　as　to　physics。　　Bacon　does　not　sneer　as

Macaulay　does　at　the　ancient　philosophers；　he　bears　testimony　to

their　genius　and　their　unrivalled　dialectical　powers；　even　if　he

regards　their　speculations　as　frequently　barren。　　He　does　not

flippantly　ridicule　the　homoousian　and　the　homoiousian　as　mere

words；　but　the　expression　and　exponent　of　profound　theological

distinctions；　as　every　theologian　knows　them　to　be。　　He　does　not

throw　dirt　on　metaphysical　science　if　properly　directed；　still　less

on　noble　inquiries　after　God　and　the　mysteries　of　life。　　He　is

subjective　as　well　as　objective。　　He　treats　of　philosophy　in　its

broadest　meaning；　as　it　takes　in　the　province　of　the　understanding；

the　memory；　and　the　will；　as　well　as　of　man　in　society。　　He　speaks

of　the　principles　of　government　and　of　the　fountains　of　law；　of

universal　justice；　of　eternal　spiritual　truth。　　So　that　Playfair

judiciously　observes　（and　he　was　a　scientist）　〃that　it　was　not　by

sagacious　anticipations　of　science；　afterwards　to　be　made　in

physics；　that　his　writings　have　had　so　powerful　an　influence；　as　in

his　knowledge　of　the　limits　and　resources　of　the　human

understanding。　　It　would　be　difficult　to　find　another　writer；　prior

to　Locke；　whose　works　are　enriched　with　so　many　just　observations

on　mere　intellectual　phenomena。　　What　he　says　of　the　laws　of

memory；　or　imagination；　has　never　been　surpassed　in　subtlety。　　No

man　ever　more　carefully　studied　the　operation　of　his　own　mind　and

the　intellectual　character　of　others。〃　　Nor　did　Bacon　despise

metaphysical　science；　only　the　frivolous　questions　that　the　old

scholastics　associated　with　it；　and　the　general　barrenness　of　their

speculations。　　He　surely　would　not　have　disdained　the　subsequent

inquiries　of　Locke；　or　Berkeley；　or　Leibnitz；　or　Kant。　　True；　he

sought　definite　knowledge；something　firm　to　stand　upon；　and　which

could　not　be　controverted。　　No　philosophy　can　be　sound　when　the

principle　from　which　deductions　are　made　is　not　itself　certain　or

very　highly　probable；　or　when　this　principle；　pushed　to　its　utmost

logical　sequence；　would　lead　to　absurdity；　or　even　to　a　conflict

with　human　consciousness。　　To　Bacon　the　old　methods　were　wrong；　and

it　was　his　primal　aim　to　reform　the　scientific　methods　in　order　to

arrive　at　truth；　not　truth　for　utilitarian　ends　chiefly；　but　truth

for　its　own　sake。　　He　loved　truth　as　Palestrina　loved　music；　or

Raphael　loved　painting；　or　Socrates　loved　virtue。



Now　the　method　which　was　almost　exclusively　employed　until　Bacon's

time　is　commonly　called　the　deductive　method；　that　is；　some

principle　or　premise　was　assumed　to　be　true；　and　reasoning　was　made

from　this　assumption。　　No　especial　fault　was　found　with　the

reasoning　of　the　great　masters　of　logic　like　Aristotle　and　Thomas

Aquinas；　for　it　never　has　been　surpassed　in　acuteness　and　severity。

If　their　premises　were　admitted；　their　conclusions　would　follow　as

a　certainty。　　What　was　wanted　was　to　establish　the　truth　of

premises；　or　general　propositions。　　This　Bacon　affirmed　could　be

arrived　at　only　by　induction；　that　is；　the　ascending　from

ascertained　individual　facts　to　general　principles；　by　extending

what　is　true　of　particulars　to　the　whole　class　in　which　they

belong。　　Bacon　has　been　called　the　father　of　inductive　science；

since　he　would　employ　the　inductive　method。　　Yet　he　is　not　truly

the　father　of　induction；　since　it　is　as　old　as　the　beginnings　of

science。　　Hippocrates；　when　he　ridiculed　the　quacks　of　his　day；　and

collected　the　facts　and　phenomena　of　disease；　and　inferred　from

them　the　proper　treatment　of　it；　was　as　much　the　father　of

induction　as　Bacon　himself。　　The　error　the　ancients　made　was　in　not

collecting　a　sufficient　number　of　facts　to　warrant　a　sound

induction。　　And　the　ancients　looked　out　for　facts　to　support　some

preconceived　theory；　from　which　they　reasoned　syllogistically。　　The

theory　could　not　be　substantiated　by　any　syllogistic　reasonings；

since　conclusions　could　never　go　beyond　assumptions；　if　the

assumptions　were　wrong；　no　ingenious　or　elaborate　reasoning　would

avail　anything　towards　the　discovery　of　truth；　but　could　only

uphold　what　was　assumed。　　This　applied　to　theology　as　well　as　to

science。　　In　the　Dark　Ages　it　was　well　for　the　teachers　of　mankind

to　uphold　the　dogmas　of　the　Church；　which　they　did　with　masterly

dialectical　skill。　　Those　were　ages　of　Faith；　and　not　of　Inquiry。

It　was　all…important　to　ground　believers　in　a　firm　faith　of　the

dogmas　which　were　deemed　necessary　to　support　the　church　and　the

cause　of　religion。　　They　were　regarded　as　absolute　certainties。

There　was　no　dispute　about　the　premises　of　the　scholastic's

arguments；　and　hence　his　dialectics　strengthened　the　mind　by　the

exercise　of　logical　sports；　and　at　the　same　time　confirmed　the

faith。



The　world　never　saw　a　more　complete　system　of　dogmatic　theology

than　that　elaborated　by　Thomas　Aquinas。　　When　the　knowledge　of　the

Greek　and　Hebrew　was　rare　and　imperfect；　and　it　was　impossible　to

throw　light　by　means　of　learning　and　science　on　the　texts　of

Scripture；　it　was　well　to　follow　the　interpretation　of　such　a　great

light　as　Augustine；　and　assume　his　dogmas　as　certainties；　since

they　could　not　then　be　controverted；　and　thus　from　them　construct　a

system　of　belief　which　would　confirm　the　faith。　　But　Aquinas；　with

his　Aristotelian　method　of　syllogism　and　definitions；　could　not　go

beyond　Augustine。　　Augustine　was　the　fountain；　and　the　water　that

flowed　from　it　in　ten　thousand　channels　could　not　rise　above　the

spring；　and　as　everybody　appealed　to　and　believed　in　Saint

Augustine；　it　was　well　to　construct　a　system　from　him　to　confute

the　heretical；　and　which　the　heretical　would　respect。　　The

scholastic　philosophy　which　some　ridicule；　in　spite　of　its

puerilities　and　sophistries　and　syllogisms；　preserved　the　theology

of　the　Middle　Ages；　perhaps　of　the　Fathers。　　It　was　a　mighty

bulwark　of　the　faith　which　was　then　accepted。　　No　honors　could　be

conferred　on　its　great　architects　that　were　deemed　extravagant。

The　Pope　and　the　clergy　saw　in　Thomas　Aquinas　the　great　defender　of

the　Church；not　of　its　abuses；　but　of　its　doctrines。　　And　if　no

new　light　can　be　shed　on　the　Scripture　text　from　which　assumptions

were　made；　if　these　assumptions　cannot　be　assailed；　if　they　are

certitudes；then　we　can　scarcely　have　better　text…books　than　those

furnished　to　the　theologians　of　the　Middle　Ages；　for　no　modern

dialetician　can　excel　them　in　severity　of　logic。　　The　great　object

of　modern　theologians　should　be　to　establish　the　authenticity　and

meaning　of　the　Scripture　texts　on　which　their　assumptions　rest；　and

this　can　be　done　only　by　the　method　which　Bacon　laid　down；　which　is

virtually　a　collation　and　collection　of　facts；that　is；　divine

declarations。　　Establish　the　meaning　of　these　without　question；　and

we　have　principia　from　which　we　may　deduce　creeds　and　systems；　the

usefulness　of　which　cannot　be　exaggerated；　especially　in　an　age　of

agnosticism。　　Having　fundamental　principles　which　cannot　be

gainsaid；　we　may　philosophically　draw　deductions。　　Bacon　did　not

make　war　on　deduction；　when　its　fundamental　truths　are　established。

Deduction　is　as　much　a　necessary　part　of　philosophy　as　induction：

it　is　the　peculiarity　of　the　Scotch　metaphysicians；　who　have　ever

deduced　truths　from　those　previously　established。　　Deduction　even

enters　into　modern　science　as　well　as　induction。　　When　Cuvier

deduced　from　a　bone　the　form　and　habits　of　the　mastodon；　when

Kepler　deduced　his　great　laws；　all　from　the　primary　thought　that

there　must　be　some　numerical　or　geographical　relation　between　the

times；　distances；　and　velocities　of　the　revolving　bodies　of　the

solar　system；　when　Newton　deduced；　as　is　said；　the　principle　of

gravitation　from　the　fall　of　an　apple；　when　Leverrier　sought　for　a

new　planet　from　the　perturbations　of　the　heavenly　bodies　in　their

orbits；we　feel　that　deduction　is　as　much　a　legitimate　process　as

induction　itself。



But　deductive　logic　is　the　creation　of　Aristotle；　and　it　was　the

authority　of　Aristotle　that　Bacon　sought　to　subvert。　　The　inductive

process　is　also　old；　of　which　Bacon　is　called　the　father。　　How　are

these　things　to　be　reconciled　and　explained？　　Wherein　and　how　did

Bacon　adapt　his　method　to　the　discovery　of　truth；　which　was　his

principal　aim；that　method　which　is　the　great　cause　of　modern

progress　in　science；　the　way　to　it　being　indicated　by　him　pre…

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